Guides & research, page 4

In-depth guides on protein analysis, molecular docking, drug discovery, and bioinformatics tools.

Genetics · 10 min
Which organisms have the largest and smallest genomes?
Genome sizes of different organisms, from a 1,758-nucleotide circovirus and a 50,141-base-pair bacterial symbiont to the human genome and a 160-billion-base-pair fern.
Drugs · 12 min
AI drug discovery statistics [2026]
AI drug discovery statistics for 2026: 117 AI-enabled drugs had entered clinical trials by mid-2025, three computationally designed drugs are in Phase 3 or under FDA review, and none is approved yet. Plus FDA submissions, funding, and the data models train on.
Antibodies · 8 min
What is the molecular weight of an antibody?
A typical IgG antibody weighs about 150 kDa, its Fc and Fab fragments about 50 kDa each, and pentameric IgM about 970 kDa. Compare every class, chain and fragment.
Antibodies · 13 min
Antibody variable regions: VH, VL, CDRs and frameworks
VH and VL domains, the six CDRs and eight framework regions they contain, how Kabat, Chothia and IMGT draw CDR boundaries, and how V(D)J recombination and somatic hypermutation create variable-region diversity.
Drugs · 11 min
How much does drug development cost?
Independent studies put the cost of developing a new drug near 0.7 to 1.3 billion US dollars once failures and capital costs are counted; industry-based estimates reach 2.6 to 2.7 billion. Here is what each figure includes, with costs by phase, therapeutic area and drug type.
Drugs · 9 min
How many druggable genes are there?
About 4,500 human genes are considered part of the druggable genome. A major analysis counted 4,479 drugged or druggable genes, equal to 22% of protein-coding genes.
Antibodies · 12 min
Fab and Fc regions of an antibody: structure and function
The two Fab arms of an antibody bind antigen, and the Fc stem recruits immune cells, complement and the FcRn recycling receptor. Compare their domains, size and functions, how papain and pepsin separate them, and why the split matters for therapeutic antibodies.
Genetics · 10 min
How long does DNA last?
DNA can last months on an outdoor surface, centuries in buried bone, and about 2 million years in frozen sediment. Temperature, water, sunlight, and microbes set the pace far more than age does.
Genetics · 7 min
How long does DNA replication take?
Human cells copy their DNA in about 8 hours, while E. coli copies its chromosome in about 40 minutes. See fork speeds, origin counts and replication times by organism.
Genetics · 9 min
How long does PCR take?
A PCR machine usually runs for 45 minutes to 2 hours. Compare standard, fast, qPCR, and RT-qPCR run times, step times and extension rates per kilobase, and how long a PCR test result takes.
Proteins · 6 min
How many amino acids are in hemoglobin?
Adult hemoglobin A contains 574 amino acids in four chains. Fetal, A2 and embryonic hemoglobins have the same total, and counts of 578 include the methionine each chain starts with.
Proteins · 7 min
How many amino acids are in insulin?
Human insulin has 51 amino acids in two chains, 21 in the A chain and 30 in the B chain. Here are both sequences, the 110-residue precursor and how analogs differ.
Cells · 8 min
How many atoms are in the human body?
A 70-kilogram adult contains about 7 octillion atoms. Roughly 62% are hydrogen, 24% oxygen, 12% carbon, and 1% nitrogen, and the total scales with body weight at about 100 septillion atoms per kilogram.
Cells · 7 min
How many ATP are produced in cellular respiration?
Aerobic respiration yields about 30 to 32 ATP per glucose under modern accounting, not the older 36 to 38. The shuttle that carries glycolytic NADH into mitochondria decides between 30 and 32.
Cells · 7 min
How many ATP are produced in oxidative phosphorylation?
Oxidative phosphorylation makes about 26 to 28 ATP per glucose, or 2.5 ATP per NADH and 1.5 per FADH2. Proton counting explains the fractions and why older textbooks say 34.
Cells · 7 min
How many ATP does beta oxidation produce?
Beta oxidation makes no ATP directly. Each round yields about 4 ATP through its NADH and FADH2, and complete oxidation of palmitate yields 106 net ATP, or 129 with older ratios.
Cells · 7 min
How many bacteria are in the human body?
The human body carries about 38 trillion bacterial cells, nearly all in the colon, with a combined mass of about 0.2 kg. That is roughly 1.3 bacteria per human cell, not the 10:1 often quoted.
Cells · 10 min
How many cell types are in the human body?
Modern censuses count about 400 major human cell types, twice the textbook figure of 200. Sorting cells by gene activity splits them into thousands of subtypes, 3,313 in the adult brain alone.
Cells · 10 min
How many cells are in the human body?
An adult human body has roughly 30 to 37 trillion human cells. The latest census puts a 70 kg man at 36 trillion, a 60 kg woman at 28 trillion and a 10-year-old child at 17 trillion.
Genetics · 7 min
How many codons are there?
There are 64 codons in the standard genetic code. Sixty-one specify the 20 standard amino acids, and three, UAA, UAG, and UGA, are stop codons.
Genetics · 8 min
How many CpG sites are in the human genome?
ProteinIQ counted 29.4 million CpG sites in the GRCh38 human reference genome and 33.9 million in the complete T2T-CHM13 sequence, or twice as many CpG cytosines across both strands.
Proteins · 6 min
How many enzymes are in the human body?
Humans encode about 3,800 enzymes, not 75,000. Reviewed human enzyme proteins cover 1,560 classified reactions across seven enzyme classes.
Genetics · 6 min
How many genes are in a chromosome?
A human chromosome carries about 800 protein-coding genes on average, from 61 on the Y chromosome to 2,016 on chromosome 1. See current counts for chromosomes 1 through 22, X, Y, and mitochondrial DNA.
Cells · 8 min
How many mitochondria are in a cell?
A liver cell holds about 1,000 to 2,000 mitochondria, and many human cells hold hundreds. Egg cells have the most, about 100,000, heart muscle cells pack the most by volume, and mature red blood cells have none.

Which organisms have the largest and smallest genomes?

AI drug discovery statistics [2026]

What is the molecular weight of an antibody?

Antibody variable regions: VH, VL, CDRs and frameworks

How much does drug development cost?

How many druggable genes are there?

Fab and Fc regions of an antibody: structure and function

How long does DNA last?

How long does DNA replication take?

How long does PCR take?

How many amino acids are in hemoglobin?

How many amino acids are in insulin?

How many atoms are in the human body?

How many ATP are produced in cellular respiration?

How many ATP are produced in oxidative phosphorylation?

How many ATP does beta oxidation produce?

How many bacteria are in the human body?

How many cell types are in the human body?

How many cells are in the human body?

How many codons are there?

How many CpG sites are in the human genome?

How many enzymes are in the human body?

How many genes are in a chromosome?

How many mitochondria are in a cell?