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What is the molecular weight of an antibody?
A typical IgG antibody weighs about 150 kDa. Compare the molecular weights of IgG, IgM, IgA, Fab, Fc, and other antibody forms.
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Drug discovery statistics [2026]
Current drug discovery statistics on FDA novel drug approvals, clinical success rates, development cost, biosimilars, cell and gene therapies, AAV products, and CRISPR trials.
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How many druggable genes are there?
About 4,500 human genes are considered part of the druggable genome. A major analysis counted 4,479 drugged or druggable genes, equal to 22% of protein-coding genes.
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How many sequences are in GenBank?
GenBank contains 6.52 billion sequence records and 57.69 trillion nucleotide bases in release 272. See how the database has grown and how many public bacterial, plant, and human genome assemblies NCBI indexes.
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How long does a drug patent last?
A US drug patent usually lasts 20 years from filing, not FDA approval. Actual market exclusivity before generic entry averages about 12 to 15 years.
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How long does a western blot take?
A western blot can be completed in one working day, but many laboratory protocols run across two days because the primary antibody incubates overnight at 4°C.
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How long does PCR take?
Most PCR runs take about 45 minutes to 2 hours in a thermocycler. Compare conventional PCR, qPCR, and RT-qPCR times and see how cycle count and target length affect the run.
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How many monoclonal antibodies are FDA approved?
The FDA had approved 169 antibody-based biologics by the end of 2025. The total includes 113 IgG-based antibodies, 15 bispecifics, 14 antibody-drug conjugates, and other antibody formats.
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How many viruses infect humans?
The commonly cited estimate is about 270 known human-infecting viruses, but published totals range from 219 to 1,131 because studies use different evidence standards.
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How much is the pharmaceutical industry worth?
Global medicine spending reached about 1.94 trillion US dollars in 2025. See current figures for pharmaceutical advertising, marketing, profit, lobbying, companies, and employment.
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How long does whole-genome sequencing take?
Human whole-genome sequencing can generate genome data in hours to about a day. Sample preparation, analysis, interpretation, and reporting can extend the full turnaround to weeks.
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What is the most abundant protein on Earth?
Rubisco is considered the most abundant protein and enzyme on Earth, with an estimated global mass of about 0.7 gigatonnes. The ranking remains a well-supported claim rather than a complete census.
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What is the fastest enzyme?
Catalase is the fastest enzyme by maximum turnover number. One catalase molecule can decompose an estimated 16 million to 44 million hydrogen peroxide molecules per second.
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How long do clinical trials take?
A clinical trial can last from several months to several years. See FDA ranges and observed ClinicalTrials.gov durations for Phase 1, Phase 2, and Phase 3 trials.
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How long does it take to develop a vaccine?
A successful new vaccine usually takes 10 to 15 years to develop. See how research, clinical trials, FDA review, cost, and the COVID-19, polio, mumps, MMR, and Ebola timelines compare.
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How long does mRNA last in a cell?
Cellular mRNA has a half-life of a few minutes in bacteria, about 18 minutes in budding yeast, and several hours in cultured human cells.
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How many amino acids are in insulin?
Mature human insulin has 51 amino acid residues across two chains. Its 110-residue precursor is shortened during processing before the hormone is secreted.
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How many antibiotics are there?
The WHO classified 268 antibiotics used in humans in 2025, including 50 on its Essential Medicines List. The exact total depends on whether the count covers active substances, products, or classes.
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How many genes are in mitochondrial DNA?
Human mitochondrial DNA contains 37 genes in a circular genome of 16,569 base pairs. Most human protein-coding genes are instead found in nuclear DNA.
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How many medicines are there in the world?
There is no single worldwide count of medicines. DrugBank lists 4,815 approved drugs and 19,879 total drug entries, while the 2025 WHO Essential Medicines List contains 523 medicines.
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How many nucleosomes are in a human cell?
A typical diploid human cell contains about 30 million nucleosomes. See how that estimate is calculated and why a nucleosome can be described as containing 146, 166, or about 200 base pairs.
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How many RNA polymerases do eukaryotes have?
Eukaryotes have three canonical nuclear RNA polymerases, while land plants have five. DNA polymerase counts vary by species, from five in E. coli to 16 in humans.
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How much DNA is needed for sequencing?
Most DNA sequencing workflows start with 1 ng to 1 µg of DNA. Illumina DNA Prep recommends 100–500 ng for human DNA, while Nanopore ligation libraries use 1 µg for fragments longer than 10 kb.
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How many chromosomes do different species have?
A sourced comparison of chromosome counts in humans, dogs, cats, horses, chimpanzees, cows, chickens, mice, fruit flies, bananas, yeast, and other species.
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How long is human DNA uncoiled?
Human nuclear DNA is about 2.05 to 2.08 meters long per diploid cell when uncoiled, or an estimated 14.4 billion kilometers across the nucleated cells of a 70-kilogram reference male.
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How many amino acids are in a complete protein?
A complete protein supplies all nine essential amino acids in adequate amounts. An incomplete protein has too little of one or more, but usually still contains all nine.
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How many amino acids are in hemoglobin?
Mature adult hemoglobin A contains 574 amino acid residues across four subunits. Counts of 578, 142, or 147 include initiator methionines or refer to individual chains.
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How many ATP are produced in cellular respiration?
Cellular respiration produces about 30 to 32 ATP molecules per glucose in human cells: 4 directly and 26 to 28 through oxidative phosphorylation.
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How many ATP are produced in fermentation?
Lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation each yield two net ATP per glucose. All of that ATP comes from glycolysis; the fermentation reactions add no more.
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How many ATP are produced in glycolysis?
Glycolysis produces four ATP molecules and consumes two ATP molecules, for a net yield of two ATP per glucose.
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How many ATP are produced in oxidative phosphorylation?
Oxidative phosphorylation produces about 26 to 28 ATP per glucose. See how NADH, FADH2, and the two mitochondrial shuttle systems produce that range.
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How many ATP are produced in the Krebs cycle?
The Krebs cycle directly produces 2 ATP equivalents per glucose, plus 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 that can support another 18 ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
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How many ATP does beta oxidation produce?
Complete oxidation of palmitate yields 106 net ATP: 28 from the NADH and FADH2 made during beta oxidation, 80 from acetyl-CoA, minus 2 ATP equivalents for activation.
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How many cell types are in the human body?
Modern atlases identify several hundred human cell types. Tabula Sapiens classified 475, while finer molecular studies find thousands of subtypes in the brain alone.
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How many chromosomes do humans have?
Humans typically have 46 chromosomes in most nucleated body cells: 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes. Egg and sperm cells have 23 each.
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How many codons are there?
There are 64 possible codons in the standard genetic code. Of these, 61 specify amino acids and three are stop codons.
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How many CpG sites are in the human genome?
The human genome contains about 28 million CpG sites. A 2023 whole-genome methylation atlas analyzed 28,217,448 CpG positions, or roughly one per 110 base pairs.
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How many genes are in a chromosome?
Human nuclear chromosomes contain between 61 and 2,016 protein-coding genes. See the current gene count for chromosomes 1 through 22, X, Y, and mitochondrial DNA.
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How many NADH are produced in glycolysis?
Glycolysis produces two NADH molecules per glucose molecule. See where they form, how much ATP their electrons can produce, and what happens without oxygen.
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How many peptide bonds are in a peptide?
A single linear peptide chain has one fewer peptide bond than amino acid residues. See the counts for dipeptides through hexapeptides, 100-residue chains, insulin, and cyclic peptides.
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How many platelets are in the human body?
A typical adult has about 1 trillion circulating platelets and about 1.5 trillion platelets across the blood and spleen. Around 100 billion are produced each day.
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How many types of antibodies are there?
The human body has five antibody classes. IgG has four subclasses and IgA has two, giving nine constant-region isotypes when subclasses are counted separately.
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How many types of RNA are there?
There are three major types of RNA: mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. Modern human RNA annotations distinguish 56 non-coding classes, showing why the total depends on how a type is defined.
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How many white blood cells are in the human body?
The human body contains an estimated 1.8 trillion immune cells. About 23 to 55 billion white blood cells circulate in an adult's blood at common reference concentrations.
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How much DNA do cousins share?
First cousins share 12.5% of their autosomal DNA by descent on average, second cousins share 3.125%, and third cousins share 0.781%.
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How much DNA do siblings share?
Full siblings share about 50% of their autosomal DNA by descent on average. Identical twins share virtually 100%, while half-siblings average 25%.
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How much DNA do humans share with other animals?
Humans and chimpanzees are 98.8% identical across aligned DNA. Comparisons with other animals and plants often count shared genes instead of identical whole genomes.
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How big is the human genome?
The human genome has about 3.1 billion base pairs per haploid copy. A typical diploid cell contains about 6.3 billion base pairs and 6.4 to 6.5 picograms of nuclear DNA.
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What percentage of clinical trials fail?
About 86% to 93% of drug candidates that enter clinical trials fail before approval, depending on the dataset and counting method. Phase 2 is the largest hurdle, with about 71% failing to advance in the 2011-2020 BIO benchmark.
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How long do proteins last in the body?
Proteins in the body can last from minutes to a lifetime. Human cell studies show half-lives from 18 minutes to months, while some lens and collagen proteins persist for decades.
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How long does DNA last?
DNA can remain detectable for days, years, or millennia. Its survival depends more on temperature, water, sunlight, microbes, and the sample material than on age alone.
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How long does DNA replication take?
Human DNA replication takes about 8 hours. See measured replication fork speeds, bacterial replication times, and how thousands of origins copy the genome in parallel.
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How many amino acids are there?
Proteins use 20 standard amino acids. Humans also encode selenocysteine, bringing the human count to 21, while pyrrolysine brings the known total across life to 22.
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How many atoms are in the human body?
A 70-kilogram human body contains about 7 × 10^27 atoms, including roughly 4.2 octillion hydrogen atoms, 1.6 octillion oxygen atoms, and 800 septillion carbon atoms.
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How many bacteria are in the human body?
The human body carries about 38 trillion bacterial cells, with nearly all of them in the colon. Current estimates put the bacteria-to-human-cell ratio near 1:1.
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How many cells are in the human body?
The human body contains about 36 trillion cells in a reference adult male, 28 trillion in a reference adult female, and 17 trillion in a 10-year-old child.
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How many enzymes are in the human body?
The human genome contains about 3,800 enzyme-coding genes. Learn why gene counts, enzyme proteins, EC numbers, enzyme classes, and enzyme molecules give different totals.
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How many FDA-approved drugs are there?
FDA data contain 26,715 active prescription and OTC drug product records as of July 2026. These represent 13,961 applications, 4,539 drug names, and 2,329 distinct nonblank ingredient entries.
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How many genes do humans have?
Humans have about 19,000 to 20,000 protein-coding genes. ProteinIQ estimates the number at 19,442; the broader human reference annotation has 78,733 gene entries.
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How many mitochondria are in a cell?
Many human cells contain hundreds of mitochondria. Liver cells have about 1,000 to 2,000, mature red blood cells have none, and a mature egg cell can contain about 100,000.
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How many neurons are in the human brain?
An adult human brain is usually said to contain about 86 billion neurons. Direct whole-brain studies found roughly 62 to 95 billion, with most neurons in the cerebellum.
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How many red blood cells are in the human body?
A 70-kilogram reference man has about 25 trillion red blood cells, making them the most numerous human cell type. About 210 billion turn over each day.
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How many ribosomes are in a cell?
Ribosome counts range from thousands in bacteria to millions in mammalian cells. Compare bacterial, yeast, and mammalian cells, translation speeds, protein output, and polysomes.
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How many SNPs are in the human genome?
A typical human genome has about 5 million single-nucleotide variants relative to a reference. Roughly 10 million SNP sites are common across the population, while dbSNP Build 157 has 1.172 billion live reference records.
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What percentage of the human genome is viral DNA?
About 8% of the human genome is viral DNA in the standard sense: inherited endogenous retrovirus sequences. That is about 250 million bases in a 3.1-billion-base reference genome.
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What's the most common amino acid?
Leucine is the most common standard amino acid in UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot release 2026_02 at 9.65%. Glycine is the answer for collagen because collagen has glycine at every third residue.
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What is the smallest protein?
The smallest protein depends on the definition. CLN025 folds with only 10 amino acids, while TAL/pri is a well-documented natural 11-amino-acid functional peptide.
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What is the most abundant protein in the human body?
Collagen is considered the most abundant protein in the human body, but its exact share of total protein has never been measured in a whole human.
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AlphaFold statistics [2026]
AlphaFold DB v6 contains 241,070,489 predicted protein structures, the database has reached more than 3.4 million users across 190 countries, and AlphaFold 2 achieved 0.96 angstrom median backbone accuracy in CASP14.
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What is the average size of a protein?
The typical protein is about 300–400 amino acids long, weighing 30–50 kDa. Human proteins average ~375 amino acids, bacterial proteins ~267, and the extremes span from ~20 amino acids to 45,212.
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How much does drug development cost?
Drug development cost estimates range from 161 million to 4.54 billion US dollars. Recent transparent studies put the typical approved new drug near 700 million to 1.3 billion US dollars after failure and capital adjustments.
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58 E. coli statistics [2026]
Up-to-date E. coli statistics covering the K-12 MG1655 reference genome, current gene and protein counts, cell size, growth rate, ribosomes, mutation rate, public genome assemblies, pathogenic groups, and U.S. STEC foodborne burden estimates.
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How much does it cost to sequence a genome?
Human whole-genome sequencing costs about $200 for a research service and roughly $550 to $600 for current consumer tests. Clinical analysis costs several thousand.
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How much DNA do humans share with bananas?
Humans share about 17-25% of protein-coding genes with bananas, not 50-60% of DNA as widely claimed. Whole-genome alignment would be less than 1%. The shared genes are ancient housekeeping genes conserved for 1.5 billion years.
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How much DNA do humans share with chimpanzees?
Humans and chimpanzees share about 98.8% of directly comparable DNA sequence, about 96% when insertions and deletions are included in the classic 2005 genome comparison, and lower strict one-to-one fractions in complete-assembly analyses.
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How big is the human proteome?
The human body has about 19,400 reference protein types, 172,117 distinct GENCODE translations, and likely millions of proteoforms. Individual protein molecules are a separate, much larger count.
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Which organisms have the largest and smallest genomes?
The fork fern Tmesipteris oblanceolata has the largest measured nuclear genome at about 160 billion base pairs. The host-dependent bacterium Nasuia deltocephalinicola has the smallest known cellular genome at 112,031 base pairs.
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What is the largest protein?
PKZILLA-1 is the largest known protein at 45,212 amino acids and 4.7 MDa. Titin remains the largest human protein, while dystrophin is much smaller but is encoded by an unusually large gene.
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How many proteins are there?
Humans have 19,442 protein-coding genes, 172,117 annotated translated products, and billions to trillions of individual protein molecules per cell. Across all species, 475 million unique sequence clusters have been catalogued.
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41 PDB statistics [2026]
The Protein Data Bank contains 257,181 current entries as of July 22, 2026, including 251,945 entries with protein. RCSB PDB separately lists 1,062,058 computed structure models.
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Protein analysis
What is SignalP 6.0? Signal peptide prediction explained
SignalP 6.0 uses a protein language model to predict five signal-peptide classes and their cleavage sites without requiring the user to select an organism group.
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AI drug discovery statistics [2026]
AI drug discovery statistics in 2026 include more than 500 FDA submissions with AI components from 2016 to 2023, 75 AI-discovered molecules entered the clinic by 2023, 241 million AlphaFold DB predictions, and measurable virtual-screening and ADMET benchmarks.
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Drug discovery trends statistics [2026]
Drug discovery trends in 2026 include 46 FDA CDER novel approvals in 2025, 104 EMA human medicine recommendations, 218,766 interventional drug or biological studies in ClinicalTrials.gov, over 500 FDA submissions with AI components from 2016 to 2023, and strong growth in precision and modality-specific discovery.
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How much of the human genome is junk DNA?
Depending on how function is defined, between 8% and 80% of the human genome may be functional. By the stricter evolutionary definition, about 8–15% of DNA is under selective constraint, leaving the remaining 85–92% without evidence of function.
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What are the most acidic and basic amino acids?
Arginine is the most basic standard amino acid by side-chain pKa, while aspartic acid is the most acidic. At pH 7.4, arginine is about 99.999% positively charged and aspartate is about 99.98% negatively charged.
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Protein analysis
What is Chai-2? De novo antibody design explained
Chai-2 is an AI model for de novo antibody and protein binder design. Learn how it works, its performance benchmarks, access options, and alternatives for computational binder design.
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