Guides & research, page 6

In-depth guides on protein analysis, molecular docking, drug discovery, and bioinformatics tools.

Proteins · 11 min
What is the smallest protein?
The smallest natural protein is an 11-amino-acid fruit fly peptide. In humans, MOTS-c has 16 and RPL41 has 25. The smallest unit of a protein is an amino acid.
Structures · 12 min
AlphaFold license and commercial use
AlphaFold 2 and the AlphaFold Database allow commercial use, while the AlphaFold 3 weights and AlphaFold Server do not. See what each license allows and which models, including Boltz-2, Chai-1, RFdiffusion and ESM, companies can use.
Structures · 20 min
DockQ score explained
DockQ scores how closely a predicted protein complex matches a reference interface, from 0 to 1, with CAPRI cutoffs at 0.23, 0.49 and 0.80. Learn how it combines fnat, iRMSD and LRMSD, and how pDockQ estimates it with no reference.
Structures · 15 min
What the MolProbity score and clashscore mean
The MolProbity score combines clashscore, rotamer outliers and Ramachandran favored residues into one number on the scale of crystallographic resolution. Learn what counts as good and how AlphaFold models score.
Structures · 16 min
What is PAE, and how to read a PAE plot
PAE (predicted aligned error) is the pairwise confidence matrix that AlphaFold, Boltz and Chai-1 write next to a predicted structure. Learn how to read its blocks and stripes and use it for domains and interfaces.
Structures · 17 min
How to read a Ramachandran plot
A Ramachandran plot shows the phi and psi backbone angles of every residue in a protein. Learn what the regions mean, what percentages a good structure has, and how to tell a model error from a strained residue.
Structures · 18 min
What is RMSD, and what counts as a good value
RMSD is the average distance between matched atoms of two structures, in ångströms. Learn the formula, when to superimpose, and what values count as good for proteins, docked poses and molecular dynamics.
Structures · 19 min
How to tell if a predicted protein structure is reliable
A predicted structure is reliable for a question when the scores that answer that question agree. Read pLDDT, PAE, pTM and ipTM in order, rescore interfaces with ipSAE, then check accuracy and geometry with DockQ and MolProbity.
Docking · 14 min
What is a Vina score, and what counts as good
The AutoDock Vina score is a docking score in kcal/mol, not a measured binding energy. Learn what the output columns mean, why there is no universal good score, and how far Vina tracks experimental affinity.
Antibodies · 19 min
How much do monoclonal antibodies cost?
Monoclonal antibody treatment averaged about $96,700 a year at US list price, from under $600 per preventive dose to over $12,500 per cancer dose. See how Medicare rates compare with manufacturing costs.
Drugs · 14 min
What is the most expensive element?
Rhodium is the most expensive element you can buy, at about $289 per gram in October 2026. Berkelium-249 and californium-252 cost far more, about $186 million and $60 million per gram.
Proteins · 15 min
How much does peptide synthesis cost?
Custom peptides cost about $2 to $4.50 per amino acid crude and about $12 at over 95% purity. See how purity, length, scale and modifications change the price.
Antibodies · 15 min
What is antibody engineering?
Antibody engineering changes an antibody's sequence or structure to improve binding, reduce immunogenicity, tune effector function or create new formats. Learn the core techniques and computational workflows.
Structures · 17 min
ipSAE explained
ipSAE is an interface confidence score for AlphaFold2, AlphaFold3 and Boltz that ignores disordered tails. Learn how it is calculated, why it beats ipTM and what 0.6 to 0.8 mean.
Structures · 15 min
ipTM vs pTM: judging predicted complexes
pTM scores the whole predicted structure, while ipTM scores only how chains sit relative to each other. Learn what the 0.5, 0.6 and 0.8 cutoffs mean and why disordered tails lower ipTM.
Drugs · 20 min
What is pentobarbital?
Pentobarbital is a short-acting barbiturate. Its chemistry, how it acts on the brain, the 5-gram lethal injection dose, and why formulation and delivery matter.
Structures · 14 min
What is pLDDT, and what counts as a good score
pLDDT is the per-residue confidence score that AlphaFold, ESMFold and Boltz attach to predicted structures. Learn what the 90, 70 and 50 cutoffs mean and why a low score is not always a failure.
Structures · 19 min
TM-score vs RMSD
RMSD and TM-score both compare two protein structures, but they answer different questions. Learn how each is calculated, what values count as good, and which one to use for prediction, fold search, docking or design.
Drugs · 9 min
Insulin prices and price history in the United States
Trace U.S. insulin price history, the gap between list and net prices, the 2023–2024 price cuts, and what the Medicare insulin cap means in 2026.
Genetics · 14 min
Introns vs exons: what is the difference?
Exons are the parts of a gene kept in mature RNA, while introns are removed by splicing. Learn how much of a human gene is intron, why exons are not the same as coding DNA, and what happens when splicing fails.
Drugs · 10 min
15 most expensive drugs in the world
Lenmeldy, a one-time gene therapy for metachromatic leukodystrophy, is the most expensive drug in the world at a US list price of $4.25 million. See the full ranking.
Cells · 8 min
How many hemoglobin molecules are in a red blood cell?
A typical adult red blood cell holds about 270 million hemoglobin molecules, or about 1.1 billion heme groups. See how the count is calculated and why textbooks quote 250 to 300 million.
Structures · 13 min
AlphaFold database statistics [2026]
AlphaFold DB lists 261,552,403 predicted models as of September 24, 2026. See the collection breakdown, human proteome coverage, and how the database compares with the PDB.
Genetics · 16 min
How much does it cost to sequence a genome?
A human genome costs about $220 to $450 at university sequencing labs and $399 to $595 as a consumer test. ProteinIQ's survey of US core facilities puts the median lab price at $419 before analysis.

What is the smallest protein?

AlphaFold license and commercial use

DockQ score explained

What the MolProbity score and clashscore mean

What is PAE, and how to read a PAE plot

How to read a Ramachandran plot

What is RMSD, and what counts as a good value

How to tell if a predicted protein structure is reliable

What is a Vina score, and what counts as good

How much do monoclonal antibodies cost?

What is the most expensive element?

How much does peptide synthesis cost?

What is antibody engineering?

ipSAE explained

ipTM vs pTM: judging predicted complexes

What is pentobarbital?

What is pLDDT, and what counts as a good score

TM-score vs RMSD

Insulin prices and price history in the United States

Introns vs exons: what is the difference?

15 most expensive drugs in the world

How many hemoglobin molecules are in a red blood cell?

AlphaFold database statistics [2026]

How much does it cost to sequence a genome?